《般舟三昧經》之空觀與實踐方法

Abstract

《般舟三昧經》是學界認定現存最早的大乘經典文本之一，其「空思想」是初期大乘般若經典的重要基礎。般舟三昧的特出之處即是將初期大乘思潮最具代表性的兩大系統――「十方佛、淨土」信仰與「般若波羅蜜」理論――以禪法實踐的方式加以結合。本論要旨為論證般舟三昧是一個以見佛為媒介，將大乘般若思想的理論落實於念佛實踐，以「見佛而不可得」貫串解行，進而證得般若波羅蜜的大乘禪法。本論將指出，般舟三昧是在原始佛教佛隨念的基礎上開展而出的大乘止觀，其觀法和目的都與原始佛教的佛隨念有所不同，可謂建立了佛隨念在修行範式上的轉移。《般舟三昧經》擅以初期大乘的般若空義解說原始佛教的基本概念與止觀方法，本論將以不淨觀、四念住、佛隨念為具體實例，展示本經成功完成聲聞禪法到菩薩禪法的過渡。 《般舟三昧經》的核心內容是空思想的理論與實踐，修行目標為證得實相。然而，般舟三昧一法自流傳以來，不論中日，均將「九十日經行、不寐」視為般舟三昧的標誌，甚至認為此乃達成般舟三昧之首要條件。這個誤解，造成般舟三昧的中心思想、修持目標乃至實踐方法都愈益隱晦，甚而趨於偏誤。為免如是誤解持續，亦為重新標舉出般舟三昧的精義，本論將梳理原始佛教至初期大乘在空義上的演變，以呈現《般舟三昧經》在空觀思想上的傳承與發展，筆者亦將對般舟三昧之空思想進行具體的哲學論證，即完成般舟三昧屬於實相念佛、大乘空三昧在思想理論上的推導，以顯明初期大乘對於「相」、「名言」這兩者與「不可得」之間的關係，據此論證《般舟三昧經》「一切法空」、「當體即空」、「無自性」的般若空思想內涵。 此外，筆者除了以文本意譯及歷史事實兩方面說明「九十日經行、不寐」演變為般舟三昧之代表符號的前因後果，更將以文獻學角度探尋其出現在《般舟三昧經》的可能緣由及出處，以論證「經行、不寐」出現在本經的真實意義與功能。 般舟三昧的特色是「定中見佛」且能與佛問對，這是在其他止觀法門中少見的情形，而如此殊勝的止觀體驗與修行成果，必有其相應的標準和要求。因此，闡明修持般舟三昧應需具備的道前基礎、戒定資糧乃至身心狀態，掌握般舟三昧整體的修證架構與次第，以確認般舟三昧之成就乃建立於精嚴的戒律（本功德力）和般若空慧，也是本論欲闡明的重點。最後，隨著般舟三昧的傳出，對大乘的發展趨勢產生了一定的影響。筆者將循本經脈絡以觀察大乘發展史、思想史的側面，並藉此以分析初期大乘法義不見容於聲聞部派的原因。

As one of the earliest extant Mahāyāna sūtra-s, Pratyutpanna-Buddha-Saṃmukhāvasthita-Samādhi-Sūtra lays foundation for “the concept of śūnya” seen in the early Mahāyāna prajñāpāramitā literature. It uniquely combines “Buddhas of the Ten Directions / Pure Land” belief and “prajñāpāramitā” theory, the two most representative systems of the early Mahāyāna thought, in the meditative practice. This thesis attempts to argue that pratyutpanna samādhi is a Mahāyāna meditative method that uses “seeing the Buddha” as the medium and puts the theory of Mahāyāna prajñā concept into practice through the Recollection of the Buddha, and the consept of “seeing the Buddha but non-cognition” penetrates the theory and pactice of pratyutpanna samādhi in order to fulfill prajñāpāramitā. This thesis points out that although pratyutpanna samādhi is a Mahāyāna meditative technique that is developed from buddhānusmṛti of the original Buddhism, its method and goal are, however, different from buddhānusmṛti. We can call pratyutpanna samādhi a paradigm shift of buddhānusmṛti in relation to the meditative practice. This thesis will also explain how Pratyutpanna-Buddha-Saṃmukhāvasthita-Samādhi-Sūtra brings forth a successful transition from śrāvaka meditation to bodhisattva meditation by skillfully interpreting the basic concepts and meditative methods of the original Buddhism in terms of Mahāyāna śūnya taught in the prajñāpāramitā literature, using aśubhāsmṛti, smṛtyupasthāna and buddhānusmṛti as examples. Pratyutpanna-Buddha-Saṃmukhāvasthita-Samādhi-Sūtra teaches about the theory and practice of śūnya, with penetration into realization as the aim of the practice. “Practicing walking-meditation (caṅkramana) for ninety days without sleep” has been considered the main feature of pratyutpanna samādhi and even the requisite for achieving it ever since pratyutpanna samādhi began its circulation in China and Japan. This misconception has caused the meaning, goal and even the method of practice of pratyutpanna samādhi to become more obscure and misdirected. In order to correct this misconception and to reveal the true meaning of pratyutpanna samādhi, I will explore how the meaning of śūnya evolved from the original Buddhism to early Mahāyāna Buddhism so that we can see the lineage and the development of the concept of śūnya that Pratyutpanna-Buddha-Saṃmukhāvasthita-Samādhi-Sūtra represents. Furthermore, I will also make a philosophical study of the concept of śūnya illustrated by pratyutpanna samādhi to derive that pratyutpanna samādhi should be categorized as Thusness Buddha-Recollection and Mahāyāna śūnya samādhi and point out the link between “nimitta/nāman”and “anupalabdhi” highlighted in early Mahāyāna Buddhism. I therefore conclude that Pratyutpanna-Buddha-Saṃmukhāvasthita-Samādhi-Sūtra explicates the concepts of śūnya of the prajñāpāramitā literature such as “all is empty”, “the very nature of existence is empty”, “without inherent nature”. I will explain why “practicing walking-meditation for ninety days without sleep” has become a symbol of pratyutpanna samādhi and the impact this event brings in terms of textual free translation and history. Moreover I also make a philological survey of the possible reasons that explain why “practicing walking-meditation for ninety days without sleep” occurs in Pratyutpanna-Buddha-Saṃmukhāvasthita-Samādhi-Sūtra and of its possible sources in order that we can understand the significance and function of “practicing walking-meditation without sleep” for its occurrence in this sūtra. Characteristic of pratyutpanna samādhi is “seeing the Buddha”and having an interrogation with him in samādhi, which is seldom seen in other meditative techniques. Necessary prerequisites are required to achieve this admirable meditative experience and outcome. Therefore, in order to have an overall view of the structure and stages for practicing pratyutpanna samādhi and to confirm that strict precepts and prajñā are the foundation for the achievement of pratyutpanna samādhi, this thesis also gives its attention to explicating the basic requirements, the precepts, the capability for concentration and even the physical conditions and the mental states the practitioners need to meet and have before they begin their pratyutpanna samādhi cultivation. The appearance of pratyutpanna samādhi certainly influenced the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the end of this thesis, I discuss the reasons why the doctrines of early Mahāyāna Buddhism are not accepted by mainstream Buddhism from the perspectives of the developmental history and history of thought of Mahāyāna Buddhism.